Exploring the Role of Immunotherapy in Cancer Treatment: A Systematic Review

Trends in Immunotherapy

Article

Exploring the Role of Immunotherapy in Cancer Treatment: A Systematic Review

Downloads

https://doi.org/10.54963/ti.v9i4.1014
Abdirasulova, A. Z., Shaker, A. A., Kadhim, M. E., Al-Marayaty, S. S., Brieg, J. M., & Siddiqui, M. F. (2025). Exploring the Role of Immunotherapy in Cancer Treatment: A Systematic Review. Trends in Immunotherapy, 9(4), 284–301. https://doi.org/10.54963/ti.v9i4.1014
Volume 9 Issue 4 (December 2025): In Progress
Copyright (c) 2025 Abdirasulova Zhainagul Abdirasulova, Alhamza Abdulsatar Shaker, Mustafa Egla Kadhim, Shatha Sadiq Al-Marayaty, Jassim Mohamed Brieg, Mohd Faizan Siddiqui
Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Copyright

The authors shall retain the copyright of their work but allow the Publisher to publish, copy, distribute, and convey the work.

License

Trends in Immunotherapy (TI)  publishes accepted manuscripts under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0). Authors who submit their papers for publication by TI agree to have the CC BY 4.0 license applied to their work, and that anyone is allowed to reuse the article or part of it free of charge for any purpose, including commercial use. As long as the author and original source are properly cited, anyone may copy, redistribute, reuse, and transform the content.

Authors

  • Abdirasulova Zhainagul Abdirasulova

    International Medical Faculty, Osh State University, Osh City 723510, Kyrgyzstan
  • Alhamza Abdulsatar Shaker

    Department of Medical Laboratory Analysis, Al Mansour University College, Baghdad 10067, Iraq
  • Mustafa Egla Kadhim

    Department of Medical Laboratory Analysis, Al-Turath University, Baghdad 10013, Iraq
  • Shatha Sadiq Al-Marayaty

    Department of Medical Laboratory Analysis, Al-Rafidain University College, Baghdad 10064, Iraq
  • Jassim Mohamed Brieg

    Anesthesia and Intensive Care Department, Madenat Alelem University College, Baghdad 10006, Iraq
  • Mohd Faizan Siddiqui

    International Medical Faculty, Osh State University, Osh City 723510, Kyrgyzstan

Received: 12 February 2025; Revised: 28 April 2025; Accepted: 29 May 2025; Published: 11 December 2025

In recent decades, immunotherapy has revolutionized the landscape of cancer treatment, offering novel therapeutic approaches that harness the body's immune system to combat malignancies effectively. This systematic review explores the pivotal role of immunotherapy in oncology, highlighting its diverse modalities, mechanisms of action, clinical applications, and ongoing challenges. Beginning with an overview of the historical evolution of cancer therapy, emphasis is placed on the emergence of immunotherapy as a cornerstone alongside traditional modalities such as chemotherapy and surgery. The review comprehensively examines various types of immunotherapy, including checkpoint inhibitors, chimeric antigen receptor T cells (CAR T cells) therapy, cytokine therapy, oncolytic viruses, and exosome-based therapies. Mechanisms behind these treatments are clarified, showing how they boost anti-tumor immune system reactions and thus enhance patient outcomes. Recent advancements for each modality are discussed, drawing on seminal studies and clinical trials cited in the literature. Furthermore, the review addresses clinical successes and challenges associated with immunotherapy, including resistance mechanisms and adverse effects, as highlighted in recent research. Technological innovations in drug delivery systems and biotechnology are explored as critical enablers of immunotherapy's efficacy and safety profiles. Finally, the review outlines future directions in the field, proposing strategies to overcome current limitations and optimize treatment efficacy. The synthesis of findings underscores the transformative impact of immunotherapy on cancer care and highlights opportunities for further research and clinical integration.

Keywords:

Immunotherapy Cancer Oncolytic Viruses CAR T-Cell Cytokine Therapy

References

  1. Abbott, M.; Ustoyev, Y. Cancer and the Immune System: The History and Background of Immunotherapy. Semin. Oncol. Nurs. 2019, 35, 150923.
  2. Wang, Y.; Wang, M.; Wu, H.X.; et al. Advancing to the Era of Cancer Immunotherapy. Cancer Commun. 2021, 41, 803–829.
  3. Yang, L.; Ning, Q.; Tang, S.S. Recent Advances and Next Breakthrough in Immunotherapy for Cancer Treatment. J. Immunol. Res. 2022, 2022, 8052212.
  4. Sato-Dahlman, M.; LaRocca, C.J.; Yanagiba, C.; et al. Adenovirus and Immunotherapy: Advancing Cancer Treatment by Combination. Cancers 2020, 12, 1295.
  5. Nguyen, T.T.; Nguyen, T.T.D.; Ta, Q.T.H.; et al. Advances in Non- and Minimally-Invasive Transcutaneous Delivery of Immunotherapy for Cancer Treatment. Biomed. Pharmacother. 2020, 131, 110753.
  6. Kozani, P.S.; Kozani, P.S.; Rahbarizadeh, F. Flexible Aptamer-Based Nucleolin-Targeting Cancer Treatment Modalities: A Focus on Immunotherapy, Radiotherapy, and Phototherapy. J. Adv. Immunopharmacol. 2021, 1, e113991.
  7. Shi, T.; Song, X.; Wang, Y.; et al. Combining Oncolytic Viruses with Cancer Immunotherapy: Establishing a New Generation of Cancer Treatment. Front. Immunol. 2020, 11, 683.
  8. Martin-Liberal, J.; Ochoa de Olza, M.; Hierro, C.; et al. The Expanding Role of Immunotherapy. Cancer Treat. Rev. 2017, 54, 74–86.
  9. Schuster, M.; Nechansky, A.; Kircheis, R. Cancer Immunotherapy. Biotechnol. J. 2006, 1, 138–147.
  10. Uscanga-Palomeque, A.C.; Chávez-Escamilla, A.K.; Alvizo-Báez, C.A.; et al. CAR-T Cell Therapy: From the Shop to Cancer Therapy. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24, 15688.
  11. Wang, J.Y.; Wang, L. CAR-T Cell Therapy: Where Are We Now, and Where Are We Heading? Blood Sci. 2023, 5, 237–248.
  12. Khalil, D.N.; Smith, E.L.; Brentjens, R.J.; et al. The Future of Cancer Treatment: Immunomodulation, CARs and Combination Immunotherapy. Nat. Rev. Clin. Oncol. 2016, 13, 273–290.
  13. García-Aranda, M.; Redondo, M. Immunotherapy: A Challenge of Breast Cancer Treatment. Cancers 2019, 11, 1822.
  14. Toh, H.C. Cancer Immunotherapy—The End of the Beginning. Chin. Clin. Oncol. 2018, 7, 12.
  15. Farkona, S.; Diamandis, E.P.; Blasutig, I.M. Cancer Immunotherapy: The Beginning of the End of Cancer? BMC Med. 2016, 14, 73.
  16. El-Mayta, R.; Zhang, Z.; Hamilton, A.G.; et al. Delivery Technologies to Engineer Natural Killer Cells for Cancer Immunotherapy. Cancer Gene Ther. 2021, 28, 947–959.
  17. Riley, R.S.; June, C.H.; Langer, R.; et al. Delivery Technologies for Cancer Immunotherapy. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 2019, 18, 175–196.
  18. Arjmand, B.; Alavi-Moghadam, S.; Rezaei-Tavirani, M.; et al. GMP-Compliant Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Exosomes for Cell-Free Therapy in Cancer. Methods Mol. Biol. 2024, 2736, 163–176.
  19. Marei, H.E.; Hasan, A.; Pozzoli, G.; et al. Cancer Immunotherapy with Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors (ICIs): Potential, Mechanisms of Resistance, and Strategies for Reinvigorating T Cell Responsiveness When Resistance is Acquired. Cancer Cell Int. 2023, 23, 64.
  20. Mitra, A.; Barua, A.; Huang, L.; et al. From Bench to Bedside: The History and Progress of CAR T Cell Therapy. Front. Immunol. 2023, 14, 1188049.
  21. Kong, W.Y.; Soderholm, A.; Brooks, A.J.; et al. Harnessing Cytokine Immunocomplexes and Cytokine Fusion Proteins for Cancer Therapy: Mechanisms and Clinical Potential. Cancer Treat. Rev. 2025, 136, 102937.
  22. Lin, D.; Shen, Y.; Liang, T. Oncolytic Virotherapy: Basic Principles, Recent Advances and Future Directions. Signal Transduct. Target. Ther. 2023, 8, 156.
  23. Li, J.; Wang, J.; Chen, Z. Emerging Role of Exosomes in Cancer Therapy: Progress and Challenges. Mol. Cancer 2025, 24, 13.
  24. Kichloo, A.; Albosta, M.; Dahiya, D.; et al. Systemic Adverse Effects and Toxicities Associated with Immunotherapy: A Review. World J. Clin. Oncol. 2021, 12, 150–163.
  25. Magee, D.E.; Hird, A.E.; Klaassen, Z.; et al. Adverse Event Profile for Immunotherapy Agents Compared with Chemotherapy in Solid Organ Tumors: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Clinical Trials. Ann. Oncol. 2020, 31, 50–60.
  26. Buchbinder, E.I.; Desai, A. CTLA-4 and PD-1 Pathways: Similarities, Differences, and Implications of Their Inhibition. Am. J. Clin. Oncol. 2016, 39, 98–106.
  27. Jogalekar, M.P.; Rajendran, R.L.; Khan, F.; et al. CAR T-Cell-Based Gene Therapy for Cancers: New Perspectives, Challenges, and Clinical Developments. Front. Immunol. 2022, 13, 925985.
  28. Christofi, T.; Baritaki, S.; Falzone, L.; et al. Current Perspectives in Cancer Immunotherapy. Cancers 2019, 11, 1472.
  29. Ghanawat, M.; Arjmand, B.; Rahim, F. The Pro-Tumor and Anti-Tumor Effects of NLRP3 Inflammasome as a New Therapeutic Option for Colon Cancer: A Meta-Analysis of Pre-Clinical Studies. J. Gastrointest. Cancer 2023, 54, 227–236.
  30. Kaufman, H.L.; Kohlhapp, F.J.; Zloza, A. Oncolytic Viruses: A New Class of Immunotherapy Drugs. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 2015, 14, 642–662.
  31. Zhou, Z.; You, B.; Ji, C.; et al. Implications of Crosstalk Between Exosome-Mediated Ferroptosis and Diseases for Pathogenesis and Treatment. Cells 2023, 12, 311.
  32. Gollins, S.; Myint, A.S.; Haylock, B.; et al. Preoperative Chemoradiotherapy Using Concurrent Capecitabine and Irinotecan in Magnetic Resonance Imaging-Defined Locally Advanced Rectal Cancer: Impact on Long-Term Clinical Outcomes. J. Clin. Oncol. 2011, 29, 1042–1049.
  33. Cai, M.; Huang, X.; Huang, X.; et al. Research Progress of Interleukin-15 in Cancer Immunotherapy. Front. Pharmacol. 2023, 14, 1184703.
  34. Ham, A.; Lee, Y.; Kim, H.S.; et al. Real-World Outcomes of Nivolumab, Pembrolizumab, and Atezolizumab Treatment Efficacy in Korean Veterans With Stage IV Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer. Cancers 2023, 15, 4198.
  35. Torasawa, M.; Yoshida, T.; Yagishita, S.; et al. Nivolumab Versus Pembrolizumab in Previously-Treated Advanced Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Patients: A Propensity-Matched Real-World Analysis. Lung Cancer 2022, 167, 49–57.
  36. Long, G.V.; Carlino, M.S.; McNeil, C.; et al. Pembrolizumab Versus Ipilimumab for Advanced Melanoma: 10-Year Follow-Up of the Phase III KEYNOTE-006 Study. Ann. Oncol. 2024, 35, 1191–1199.
  37. Drews, M.A.; Baumgarten, A.; Zensen, S.; et al. Adverse Effects of Systemic Advanced Melanoma Therapies—Do BRAF/MEK Inhibitors Increase the Incidence of Mesenteric Panniculitis? Eur. Radiol. 2025, in press.
  38. Hamdard, J.; Muğlu, H.; Bilici, A.; et al. The Prognostic and Predictive Roles of Ataxia-Telangiectasia Mutated (ATM) Expression in Patients with Metastatic Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer Receiving Pembrolizumab Monotherapy Alone or in Combination with Chemotherapy. Diagnostics 2025, 15, 1048.
  39. Ritter, K.; Strojny, M.; McCullough, J.; et al. Real-World Efficacy and Tolerability of Axitinib + Pembrolizumab in the Treatment of Renal Cell Carcinoma. J. Oncol. Pharm. Pract. 2025, 10781552251331576.
  40. Huang, C.; He, Y.; Yang, Y.; et al. A Comprehensive Evaluation of the Effectiveness and Safety of Pembrolizumab for the Treatment of Metastatic Colorectal Cancer: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Curr. Cancer Drug Targets 2025, in press.
  41. Kim, S.G.; Tasoulas, J.; Sheth, S.; et al. The Role of Immunotherapy in Salivary Gland Cancer: A Systematic Review. Ear Nose Throat J. 2025, 1455613251324353.
  42. Mansoor, H.; Gohar, M.; Attaria, A.; et al. Evaluating Comparative Effectiveness of Pembrolizumab-Based Therapy Versus Chemotherapy in Treatment of Gastric Carcinoma: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Clin. Exp. Med. 2025, 25, 98.
  43. Hasanzadeh, S.; Farokh, P.; Vazifeh, F.; et al. The Efficacy and Safety of Relatlimab/Nivolumab Combination Therapy in Patients with Advanced Melanoma: A Systematic Review. Arch. Dermatol. Res. 2024, 317, 65.
  44. Girard, N.; Besada, M.; Rogula, B.; et al. Correction: Girard et al. Comparative Efficacy of Neoadjuvant Nivolumab Plus Chemotherapy Versus Conventional Comparator Treatments in Resectable Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer: A Systematic Literature Review and Network Meta-Analysis. Cancers 2025, 17, 2492.
  45. Arrabal-Polo, M.; Gómez-Morón, L.; Gutiérrez-Tejero, F.; et al. Adjuvant Treatment in Intermediate/High-Risk Clear Cell Renal Cell Carcinoma: Systematic Review. Actas Urol. Esp. 2025, 49, 501685.
  46. Manzo, C.; Isetta, M.; Castagna, A.; et al. Polymyalgia Rheumatica (PMR) and Polymyalgia Rheumatica-Like (PMR-Like) Manifestations in Cancer Patients Following Treatment With Nivolumab and Pembrolizumab: Methodological Blurred Points Identified Through a Systematic Review of Published Case Reports. Med. Sci. 2025, 13, 34.
  47. Yang, F.; Dan, M.; Shi, J.; et al. Efficacy and Safety of PD-1 Inhibitors as Second-Line Treatment for Advanced Squamous Esophageal Cancer: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis With a Focus on PD-L1 Expression Levels. Front. Immunol. 2024, 15, 1510145.
  48. Pegram, H.J.; Smith, E.L.; Rafiq, S.; et al. CAR Therapy for Hematological Cancers: Can Success Seen in the Treatment of B-Cell Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia Be Applied to Other Hematological Malignancies? Immunotherapy 2015, 7, 545–561.
  49. Abou-El-Enein, M.; Elsallab, M.; Feldman, S.A.; et al. Scalable Manufacturing of CAR T Cells for Cancer Immunotherapy. Blood Cancer Discov. 2021, 2, 408–422.
  50. Maude, S.L.; Laetsch, T.W.; Buechner, J.; et al. Tisagenlecleucel in Children and Young Adults With B-Cell Lymphoblastic Leukemia. N. Engl. J. Med. 2018, 378, 439–448.
  51. Locke, F.L.; Miklos, D.B.; Jacobson, C.A.; et al. Axicabtagene Ciloleucel as Second-Line Therapy for Large B-Cell Lymphoma. N. Engl. J. Med. 2022, 386, 640–654.
  52. Cappell, K.M.; Kochenderfer, J.N. Long-Term Outcomes Following CAR T Cell Therapy: What We Know So Far. Nat. Rev. Clin. Oncol. 2023, 20, 359–371.
  53. Wang, L.; Zhang, L.; Dunmall, L.C.; et al. The Dilemmas and Possible Solutions for CAR-T Cell Therapy Application in Solid Tumors. Cancer Lett. 2024, 591, 216871.
  54. Hopfinger, G.; Jäger, U.; Worel, N. CAR-T Cell Therapy in Diffuse Large B Cell Lymphoma: Hype and Hope. HemaSphere 2019, 3, e185.
  55. Guirguis, L.M.; Yang, J.C.; White, D.E.; et al. Safety and Efficacy of High-Dose Interleukin-2 Therapy in Patients With Brain Metastases. J. Immunother. 2002, 25, 82–87.
  56. Buchbinder, E.I.; Dutcher, J.P.; Daniels, G.A.; et al. Therapy With High-Dose Interleukin-2 (HD IL-2) in Metastatic Melanoma and Renal Cell Carcinoma Following PD1 or PDL1 Inhibition. J. Immunother. Cancer 2019, 7, 49.
  57. Kamali, A.N.; Bautista, J.M.; Eisenhut, M.; et al. Immune Checkpoints and Cancer Immunotherapies: Insights Into Newly Potential Receptors and Ligands. Ther. Adv. Vaccines Immunother. 2023, 11, 25151355231192043.
  58. Khushalani, N.I.; Harrington, K.J.; Melcher, A.; et al. Breaking the Barriers in Cancer Care: The Next Generation of Herpes Simplex Virus-Based Oncolytic Immunotherapies for Cancer Treatment. Mol. Ther. Oncolytics 2023, 31, 100729.
  59. Chaurasiya, S.; Fong, Y.; Warner, S.G. Oncolytic Virotherapy for Cancer: Clinical Experience. Cancers 2021, 9, 419.
  60. Ma, R.; Li, Z.; Chiocca, E.A.; et al. The Emerging Field of Oncolytic Virus-Based Cancer Immunotherapy. Trends Cancer 2023, 9, 122–139.
  61. Bahreyni, A.; Mohamud, Y.; Luo, H. Oncolytic Virus-Based Combination Therapy in Breast Cancer. Cancer Lett. 2024, 585, 216634.
  62. Xu, Z.; Zeng, S.; Gong, Z.; et al. Exosome-Based Immunotherapy: A Promising Approach for Cancer Treatment. Mol. Cancer 2020, 19, 160.
  63. Wang, B.; Yu, W.; Jiang, H.; et al. Clinical Applications of STING Agonists in Cancer Immunotherapy: Current Progress and Future Prospects. Front. Immunol. 2024, 15, 1485546.
  64. Lyu, C.; Sun, H.; Sun, Z.; et al. Roles of Exosomes in Immunotherapy for Solid Cancers. Cell Death Dis. 2024, 15, 106.
  65. Denlinger, N.; Bond, D.; Jaglowski, S. CAR T-Cell Therapy for B-Cell Lymphoma. Curr. Probl. Cancer 2022, 46, 100826.
  66. Kaczmarek, M.; Poznańska, J.; Fechner, F.; et al. Cancer Vaccine Therapeutics: Limitations and Effectiveness—A Literature Review. Cells 2023, 12, 2159.
  67. Alsoud, D.; Vermeire, S.; Verstockt, B. Biomarker Discovery for Personalized Therapy Selection in Inflammatory Bowel Diseases: Challenges and Promises. Curr. Res. Pharmacol. Drug Discov. 2022, 3, 100089.
  68. Chehelgerdi, M.; Chehelgerdi, M.; Allela, O.Q.B.; et al. Progressing Nanotechnology to Improve Targeted Cancer Treatment: Overcoming Hurdles in Its Clinical Implementation. Mol. Cancer 2023, 22, 169.
  69. Riahi, R.; Tamayol, A.; Shaegh, S.A.M.; et al. Microfluidics for Advanced Drug Delivery Systems. Curr. Opin. Chem. Eng. 2015, 7, 101–112.
  70. Li, H.; Zhu, Y.; Wang, X.; et al. Joining Forces: The Combined Application of Therapeutic Viruses and Nanomaterials in Cancer Therapy. Molecules 2023, 28, 7679.
  71. Nsairat, H.; Khater, D.; Sayed, U.; et al. Liposomes: Structure, Composition, Types, and Clinical Applications. Heliyon 2022, 8, e09394.
  72. Haleem, A.; Javaid, M.; Singh, R.P.; et al. Applications of Nanotechnology in Medical Field: A Brief Review. Glob. Health J. 2023, 7, 70–77.
  73. Perumal, S.; Atchudan, R.; Lee, W. A Review of Polymeric Micelles and Their Applications. Polymers 2022, 14, 2510.
  74. Tsuchiwata, S.; Tsuji, Y. Computational Design of Clinical Trials Using a Combination of Simulation and the Genetic Algorithm. CPT Pharmacometrics Syst. Pharmacol. 2023, 12, 522–531.
  75. Zhang, R.; Billingsley, M.M.; Mitchell, M.J. Biomaterials for Vaccine-Based Cancer Immunotherapy. J. Control. Release 2018, 292, 256–276.
  76. Cirillo, G.; Spizzirri, U.G.; Curcio, M.; et al. Injectable Hydrogels for Cancer Therapy Over the Last Decade. Pharmaceutics 2019, 11, 486.
  77. Kooti, W.; Ghaleh, H.E.G.; Farzanehpour, M.; et al. Oncolytic Viruses and Cancer, Do You Know the Main Mechanism? Front. Oncol. 2021, 11, 761015.
  78. Xu, G.; Jin, J.; Fu, Z.; et al. Extracellular Vesicle-Based Drug Overview: Research Landscape, Quality Control and Nonclinical Evaluation Strategies. Signal Transduct. Target. Ther. 2025, 10, 255.
  79. Shao, Y.; Gao, Y.; Wu, L.Y.; et al. TumorAgDB1.0: Tumor Neoantigen Database Platform. Database 2025, 2025, 1–7.
  80. Siddiqui, M.F.; Mouna, A.; Nicolas, G.; et al. Computational Intelligence: A Step Forward in Cancer Biomarker Discovery and Therapeutic Target Prediction. In Computational Intelligence in Oncology: Applications in Diagnosis, Prognosis and Therapeutics of Cancers, 1st ed.; Raza, K., Ed.; Springer: Singapore, 2022; pp. 233–250.
  81. Kim, J.Y.; Bang, H.; Noh, S.J.; et al. DeepNeo: A Webserver for Predicting Immunogenic Neoantigens. Nucleic Acids Res. 2023, 51, W134–W140.
  82. Levine, J.E.; Grupp, S.A.; Pulsipher, M.A.; et al. Pooled Safety Analysis of Tisagenlecleucel in Children and Young Adults with B Cell Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia. J. Immunother. Cancer 2021, 9, e002287.
  83. Zah, E.; Nam, E.; Bhuvan, V.; et al. Systematically Optimized BCMA/CS1 Bispecific CAR-T Cells Robustly Control Heterogeneous Multiple Myeloma. Nat. Commun. 2020, 11, 2283.
  84. Lin, J.K.; Lerman, B.J.; Barnes, J.I.; et al. Cost Effectiveness of Chimeric Antigen Receptor T-Cell Therapy in Relapsed or Refractory Pediatric B-Cell Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia. J. Clin. Oncol. 2018, 36, 3192–3202.
  85. Benjamin, R.; Graham, C.; Yallop, D.; et al. Genome-Edited, Donor-Derived Allogeneic Anti-CD19 Chimeric Antigen Receptor T Cells in Paediatric and Adult B-Cell Acute Lymphoblastic Leukaemia: Results of Two Phase 1 Studies. Lancet 2020, 396, 1885–1894.
  86. De Marco, R.C.; Monzo, H.J.; Ojala, P.M. CAR T Cell Therapy: A Versatile Living Drug. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24, 6300.
  87. Floros, T.; Tarhini, A.A. Anticancer Cytokines: Biology and Clinical Effects of Interferon-α2, Interleukin (IL)-2, IL-15, IL-21, and IL-12. Semin. Oncol. 2015, 42, 539–548.
  88. Xue, D.; Hsu, E.; Fu, Y.X.; et al. Next-Generation Cytokines for Cancer Immunotherapy. Antib. Ther. 2021, 4, 123–133.
  89. Muthukutty, P.; Yoo, S.Y. Oncolytic Virus Engineering and Utilizations: Cancer Immunotherapy Perspective. Viruses 2023, 15, 1645.
  90. Xie, J.; Zheng, Z.; Tuo, L.; et al. Recent Advances in Exosome-Based Immunotherapy Applied to Cancer. Front. Immunol. 2023, 14, 1296857.