New Energy Exploitation and Application

Review

Review of Community Solar in the United States of America

Downloads

https://doi.org/10.54963/neea.v3i1.218
Aldarsi, E., & Singh, R. (2024). Review of Community Solar in the United States of America. New Energy Exploitation and Application, 3(1), 67–88. https://doi.org/10.54963/neea.v3i1.218
Volume 3 Issue 1: June 2024
Copyright (c) 2024 Eyad Aldarsi, Rajendra Singh
Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Copyright

The authors shall retain the copyright of their work but allow the Publisher to publish, copy, distribute, and convey the work.

License

New Energy Exploitation and Application (NEEA)  publishes accepted manuscripts under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0). Authors who submit their papers for publication by New Energy Exploitation and Application (NEEA) agree to have the CC BY 4.0 license applied to their work, and that anyone is allowed to reuse the article or part of it free of charge for any purpose, including commercial use. As long as the author and original source is properly cited, anyone may copy, redistribute, reuse and transform the content.

Authors

  • Eyad Aldarsi
    Holcombe Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
  • Rajendra Singh 1 Holcombe Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA; 2 Department of Automotive Engineering, Clemson University, Greenville, SC 29607, USA

Community solar is a concept where a large number of entities (consumers, businesses, charitable foundations, investors, etc.) can participate with or without having 100% ownership of the solar hardware. The objective of this paper is to provide an in-depth review of community solar. Although we have kept the global picture in mind, the United States has been our focus. The authors have provided details of the overall role of photovoltaics and battery-based power networks in global electrical power generation. Based on published reviews and research papers, the authors have analyzed the operation of community solar, ownership models and business models used in community solar projects. Based on the published results, the authors found that community solar might grow exponentially. However, due to ultra-small scale power level, this concept has not played a significant role as compared to residential, commercial, industrial and utility-scale use of solar photovoltaics. For the growth of community solar, the authors have proposed a new concept where new constructions can provide large-scale use of community solar projects. The proposed concept is off-grid and can be implemented without the introduction of any new public policy. In conclusion, the proposed concept can play a major role in providing green electrical power for new loads that also include the charging of electrical vehicles.

Keywords:

community solar photovoltaics energy storage batteries standalone power system local power

References

  1. Global carbon emissions from fossil fuels reached record high in 2023. Available online: https://sustainability.stanford.edu/news/global-carbon-emissions-fossil-fuels-reached-record-high-2023 (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  2. Financial Times. Available online: https://www.ft.com/content/5c9fbecc-4eed-4e95-a133-1aef2011c490 (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  3. Devine-Wright, P. Community versus local energy in a context of climate emergency. Nat. Energy. 2019, 4, 894–896. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-019-0459-2
  4. Guerrero, J.M.; Blaabjerg, F.; Zhelev, T.; Hemmes, K.; Monmasson, E.; Jemei, S.; Comech, M.P.; Granadino, R.; Frau, J.I. Distributed generation: Toward a new energy paradigm. IEEE Ind. Electron. Mag. 2010, 4(1), 52–64. https://doi.org/10.1109/MIE.2010.935862
  5. Community Solar Basics. Available online: https://www.energy.gov/eere/solar/community-solar-basics (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  6. Cuenca, J.; Jamil, E.; Hayes, B. Energy communities and sharing economy concepts in the electricity sector: A survey. In Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE International Conference on Environment and Electrical Engineering and 2020 IEEE Industrial and Commercial Power Systems Europe (EEEIC/I&CPS Europe), Madrid, Spain, 9–12 June 2020. https://doi.org/10.1109/EEEIC/ICPSEurope49358.2020.9160498
  7. Nolden, C.; Barnes, J.; Nicholls, J. Community energy business model evolution: A review of solar photovoltaic developments in England. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2020, 122, 109722. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2020.109722
  8. Tan, Z.; Li, D.; Xu, T. The future adoption of community shared solar: An unlabeled choice experiment in Guangdong, China. J. Clean. Prod. 2022, 378, 134417. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.134417
  9. Mehta, P.; Tiefenbeck, V. Solar PV sharing in urban energy communities: Impact of community configurations on profitability, autonomy and the electric grid. Sustain. Cities Soc. 2022, 87, 104178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2022.104178
  10. Candelise, C.; Ruggieri, G. Status and evolution of the community energy sector in Italy. Energies. 2020, 13(8), 1888. https://doi.org/10.3390/en13081888
  11. Bauwens, T.; Gotchev, B.; Holstenkamp, L. What drives the development of community energy in Europe? The case of wind power cooperatives. Energy Res. Soc. Sci. 2016, 13, 136–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2015.12.016
  12. Boon, F.P.; Dieperink, C. Local civil society based renewable energy organisations in the Netherlands: Exploring the factors that stimulate their emergence and development. Energy Policy. 2014, 69, 297–307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2014.01.046
  13. Bauwens, T. Analyzing the determinants of the size of investments by community renewable energy members: Findings and policy implications from Flanders. Energy Policy. 2019, 129, 841–852. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2019.02.067
  14. Lode, M.L.; Boveldt, G.; Coosemans, T.; Camargo, L.R. A transition perspective on Energy Communities: A systematic literature review and research agenda. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2022, 163, 112479. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2022.112479
  15. Clean Energy Future. Available online: https://www.doi.gov/priorities/clean-energy-future#:~:text=Solar%20Energy,Solar%20energy%20is&text=Within%20an%20hour%20and%20a,photovoltaic%20cells%20in%20the%20panel (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  16. The IEA Confirms That Solar is Now the Cheapest Energy in History. Available online: https://www.unsustainablemagazine.com/solar-is-now-the-cheapest-energy/ (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  17. Perez, M.; Perez, R. Update 2022—A fundamental look at supply side energy reserves for the planet. Sol. Energy Adv. 2022, 2, 100014. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seja.2022.100014
  18. Nijsse, F.J.M.M.; Mercure, J.F.; Ameli, N.; Larosa, F.; Kothari, S.; Rickman, J.; Vercoulen, P.; Pollitt, H. The momentum of the solar energy transition. Nat. Commun. 2023, 14, 6542. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-41971-7
  19. M10 Solar Cell Prices Dive to New Record Low. Available online: https://www.pv-magazine.com/2023/12/01/m10-solar-cell-prices-dive-to-new-record-low/ (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  20. Solar Energy Revolution: A Massive Opportunity. Available online: https://www.forbes.com/sites/peterdiamandis/2014/09/02/solar-energy-revolution-a-massive-opportunity/?sh=3b07f5b86c90 (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  21. Global Market Outlook for Solar Power 2023–2027. Available online: https://www.solarpowereurope.org/insights/outlooks/global-market-outlook-for-solar-power-2023-2027/detail (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  22. Wind & Solar Meet Majority of Electricity Demand Growth. Available online: https://www.statista.com/chart/29703/annual-global-change-in-electricity-generation/ (accessed on7 March 2024).
  23. Singh, R.; Alapatt, G.F.; Bedi, G. Why and How PV Will Provide the Cheapest Energy in the 21st Century. F U Elec. Energ. 2014, 27(2), 275–298.
  24. Now for Some Good News About Climate. Available online: https://www.wsj.com/business/energy-oil/now-for-some-good-news-about-climate-27236f56?mod=djemSustainableBusinessPro (accessed 7 March 2024).
  25. Solar surging 58% in 2023, 413 GW of installations expected globally. Available online: https://pv-magazine-usa.com/2023/11/28/solar-surging-58-in-2023-413-gw-of-installations-expected-globally/ (accessed 7 March 2024).
  26. Windpower Intelligence Global Forecast: January 2024. Available online: https://www.windpowermonthly.com/article/1856694/windpower-intelligence-global-forecast-january-2024#:~:text=North%20America,24GW%20of%20this%20being%20offshore (accessed 7 March 2024).
  27. 2024 U.S. Clean Electricity Outlook. Available online: https://www.visualcapitalist.com/2024-us-clean-electricity-outlook/ (accessed 7 March 2024).
  28. Bloomberg Intelligence releases 2024 energy predictions. Available online: https://www.hydrocarbonengineering.com/clean-fuels/29012024/bloomberg-intelligence-releases-2024-energy-predictions/ (accessed 7 March 2024).
  29. Energy Storage. Available online: https://www.clarke-energy.com/energy-storage/ (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  30. Pumped Storage Hydropower. Available online: https://www.esmap.org/sites/default/files/ESP/WB_PSH_16Jun22.pdf (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  31. Why energy storage is key to a global climate breakthrough. Available online: https://qz.com/1295901/why-energy-storage-is-key-to-a-global-climate-breakthrough (accessed on7 March 2024).
  32. Grid-Scale Battery Storage: Frequently Asked Questions. Available online: https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy19osti/74426.pdf (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  33. Fossil fuels ‘becoming obsolete’ as solar panel prices plummet. Available online: https://www.independent.co.uk/tech/solar-panel-prices-fossil-fuels-b2419251.html (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  34. Electric car battery prices are going back down faster than expected. Available online: https://electrek.co/2023/11/20/electric-car-battery-prices-are-going-back-down-faster/ (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  35. 2024: The big year for sodium batteries? Available online: https://cicenergigune.com/en/blog/2024-big-year-sodium-batteries (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  36. Comparing EV Batteries: Lithium-ion vs. Solid-State. Available online: https://turtletimeline.com/comparing-ev-batteries-lithium-ion-vs-solid-state/ (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  37. Batteries overtake pumped hydro in Australia’s National Electricity Market. Available online: https://www.pv-magazine.com/2023/08/10/batteries-overtake-pumped-hydro-in-australias-national-electricity-market/ (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  38. California Sees Unprecedented Growth in Energy Storage, A Key Component in the State’s Clean Energy Transition. Available online: https://www.energy.ca.gov/news/2023-10/california-sees-unprecedented-growth-energy-storage-key-component-states-clean (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  39. Chart: The US grid battery fleet is about to double—again. Available online: https://www.canarymedia.com/articles/energy-storage/chart-the-us-grid-battery-fleet-is-about-to-double-again (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  40. Green hydrogen is too expensive to use in our EU steel mills, even though we've secured billions in subsidies'. Available online: https://www.hydrogeninsight.com/industrial/green-hydrogen-is-too-expensive-to-use-in-our-eu-steel-mills-even-though-weve-secured-billions-in-subsidies/2-1-1601199 (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  41. Powar, V.; Morankar, C.; Singh, R.; Banavath, S.N.; Chakravarthi, A.; Sultana, S. Business Case of Green Energy Based End to End DC Power Networks: Extremely Fast DC Charging of Electrical Vehicles near Highways. The 6th International IEEE Conference on DC Microgrid, IEEE ICDCM (in review).
  42. Energy communities. Available online: https://energy.ec.europa.eu/topics/markets-and-consumers/energy-communities_en (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  43. Bauwens, T.; Schraven, D.; Drewing, E.; Radtke, J.; Holstenkamp, L.; Gotchev, B.; Yildiz, Ö. Conceptualizing community in energy systems: A systematic review of 183 definitions. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2022, 156, 111999. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.111999
  44. Cuenca, J.J.; Jamil, E.; Hayes, B. State of the art in energy communities and sharing economy concepts in the electricity sector. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 2021, 57(6), 5737–5746. https://doi.org/10.1109/TIA.2021.3114135
  45. Fouladvand, J. Behavioural attributes towards collective energy security in thermal energy communities: Environmental-friendly behaviour matters. Energy. 2022, 261, 125353. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2022.125353
  46. Community Solar Beginnings. Available online: https://www.stoel.com/legal-insights/special-reports/the-rise-of-community-solar/sections/the-rise-of-community-solar (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  47. Community Solar. Available online: https://www.nrel.gov/state-local-tribal/community-solar.html (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  48. National Community Solar Partnership (NCSP). Available online: https://www.energy.gov/eere/solar/national-community-solar-partnership (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  49. Community Solar. Available online: https://www.seia.org/initiatives/community-solar (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  50. What is community solar? Is it better than installing solar panels on your home? Available online: https://www.solarreviews.com/blog/community-solar-vs-home-solar (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  51. Adadevoh, E.A. Powering Africa through shared solar energy. In Proceedings of the IEEE PES PowerAfrica, Accra, Ghana, 27–30 June 2017. https://doi.org/10.1109/PowerAfrica.2017.7991290
  52. US Solar Market Insight Report: 2014 Year in Review. Available online: https://www.seia.org/sites/default/files/HOlFT6ym3i.pdf (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  53. Solar Market Insight Report 2023 Q3. Available online: https://www.seia.org/research-resources/solar-market-insight-report-2023-q3 (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  54. Tracking the Sun VIII Rep. The Installed Price of Residential and Non-Residential Photovoltaic Systems in the United States. Available online: https://eta-publications.lbl.gov/sites/default/files/lbnl-188238_presentation.pdf (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  55. Spring 2023 Solar Industry Update. Available online: https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy23osti/86215.pdf (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  56. Augustine, P.; McGavisk, E. The next big thing in renewable energy: Shared solar. Electr. J. 2016, 29(4), 36–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tej.2016.04.006
  57. Chan, G.; Evans, I.; Grimley, M.; Ihde, B.; Mazumder, P. Design choices and equity implications of community shared solar. Electr. J. 2017, 30(9), 37–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tej.2017.10.006
  58. A Guide to Community Shared Solar: Utility, Private, and Nonprofit Project Development. Published November 2010. Available online: https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy11osti/49930.pdf (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  59. A Guide to Community Shared Solar: Utility, Private, and Nonprofit Project Development. Published May 2012. Available online: https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy12osti/54570.pdf (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  60. The Northwest Community Solar Guide. Available online: https://vecan.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/NW-Community-Solar-Guide.pdf (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  61. enXco becomes EDF Renewables. Available online: https://www.edf-re.com/press-release/enxco-becomes-edf-renewable-energy/ (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  62. My Generation Energy. Available online: https://www.mygenerationenergy.com/ (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  63. Clean Energy Collective. Available online: https://cleanenergycollective.com/ (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  64. Nuñez-Jimenez, A.; Mehta, P.; Griego, D. Let it grow: How community solar policy can increase PV adoption in cities. Energy Policy. 2023, 175, 113477. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2023.113477
  65. Sharing the Sun: Community Solar Deployment, Subscription Savings, and Energy Burden Reduction. Available online: https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy21osti/80246.pdf (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  66. Spring 2022 Solar Industry Update. Available online: https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy22osti/82854.pdf (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  67. Michaud, G. Perspectives on community solar policy adoption across the United States. Renew. Energy Focus. 2020, 33, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ref.2020.01.001
  68. Sonoji Sakai Intermediate. Available online: https://cebrightfutures.org/browse-projects/sonoji-sakai-intermediate (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  69. Status of State Community Solar Program Caps. Available online: https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy23osti/84077.pdf (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  70. Muaafa, M.; Adjali, I.; Bean, P.; Fuentes, R.; Kimbrough, S.O.; Murphy, F.H. Can adoption of rooftop solar panels trigger a utility death spiral? A tale of two U.S. cities. Energy Res. Soc. Sci. 2017, 34, 154–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2017.06.041
  71. Masters, G.M. Renewable and Efficient Electric Power Systems, 2nd ed.; John Wiley & Sons, Inc: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2013.
  72. Two Ways PG&E Community Solar Gardens Enable 100 Percent Solar for All. Available online: https://www.renewableenergyworld.com/baseload/hydropower/two-ways-pg-e-community-solar-gardens-enable-100-solar-for-all/#gref (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  73. Duke Energy South Carolina, Shared Solar. Available online: https://www.duke-energy.com/our-company/environment/renewable-energy/solar-energy/sc-solar-energy-programs/shared-solar (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  74. Solar for Your Home. Available online: https://www.dominionenergy.com/south-carolina/save-energy/solar-for-your-home (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  75. DC microgrids and the virtues of local electricity. Available online: https://spectrum.ieee.org/dc-microgrids-and-the-virtues-of-local-electricity (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  76. IEEE. Welcome. In Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE First International Conference on DC Microgrids (ICDCM), Atlanta, GA, USA, 7–10 June 2015. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICDCM.2015.7151991
  77. Bedi, G.; Venayagamoorthy, G.K.; Singh R.; Brooks, R.R.; Wang, K.C. Review of Internet of Things (IoT) in electric power and energy systems. IEEE Internet Things J. 2018, 5(2), 847–870. https://doi.org/10.1109/JIOT.2018.2802704
  78. Agrivoltaics: Solar and Agriculture Co-Location. Available online: https://www.energy.gov/eere/solar/agrivoltaics-solar-and-agriculture-co-location (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  79. Goetzberger, A.; Zastrow, A. On the coexistence of solar-energy conversion and plant cultivation. Int. J. Sol. Energy. 1982, 1(1), 55–69. https://doi.org/10.1080/01425918208909875
  80. The 5 Cs of Agrivoltaic Success Factors in the United States: Lessons from the InSPIRE Research Study. Available online: https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy22osti/83566.pdf (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  81. Solar Futures Study. Available online: https://www.energy.gov/eere/solar/solar-futures-study (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  82. The Potential of Agrivoltaics for the U.S. Solar Industry, Farmers, and Communities. Available online: https://www.energy.gov/eere/solar/articles/potential-agrivoltaics-us-solar-industry-farmers-and-communities (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  83. California’s PG&E just deployed its first renewable remote grid. Available online: https://electrek.co/2023/11/06/california-pge-just-deployed-its-first-renewable-remote-grid/ (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  84. New research sheds light on off-grid solar costs in remote villages. Available online: https://www.pv-magazine.com/2023/11/07/new-research-sheds-light-on-off-grid-pv-costs-in-remote-villages/ (accessed on 7 March 2024).
  85. In Jacobabad, One of the Hottest Cities on the Planet, a Heat Wave Is Pushing the Limits of Human Livability. Available online: https://insideclimatenews.org/news/20062022/jacobabad-pakistan-heat-health/ (accessed on 7 March 2024).